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Dec 12, 2019 A C program consists of various entities such as variables, functions, types, and namespaces. Each of these entities must be declared before they can be used. A declaration specifies a unique name for the entity, along with information about its type and other characteristics. Return Statement (C) Terminates the execution of a function and returns control to the calling function (or to the operating system if you transfer control from the main function). Execution resumes in the calling function at the point immediately following the call. These are implemented as macros in C and as functions in C: Classification macro / functions fpclassify Classify floating-point value (macro/function ) isfinite Is finite value (macro ) isinf Is infinity (macro/function ) isnan Is Not-A-Number (macro/function ) isnormal Is normal (macro/function ) signbit Sign bit (macro/function ).

• This reference explains the C programming language as implemented in the Microsoft C compiler. The organization is based on The Annotated C Reference Manual by Margaret Ellis and Bjarne Stroustrup and on the ANSI/ISO C International Standard (ISO/IEC FDIS 14882). Microsoft-specific implementations of C language features are included.
• User-Defined Type Conversions (C) A conversion produces a new value of some type from a value of a different type. Standard conversions are built into the C language and support its built-in types, and you can create user-defined conversions to perform conversions to, from, or between user-defined types.

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A conversion produces a new value of some type from a value of a different type. Standard conversions are built into the C++ language and support its built-in types, and you can create user-defined conversions to perform conversions to, from, or between user-defined types.

The standard conversions perform conversions between built-in types, between pointers or references to types related by inheritance, to and from void pointers, and to the null pointer. For more information, see Standard Conversions. User-defined conversions perform conversions between user-defined types, or between user-defined types and built-in types. You can implement them as Conversion constructors or as Conversion functions.

Conversions can either be explicit—when the programmer calls for one type to be converted to another, as in a cast or direct initialization—or implicit—when the language or program calls for a different type than the one given by the programmer.

Implicit conversions are attempted when:

• An argument supplied to a function does not have the same type as the matching parameter.

• The value returned from a function does not have the same type as the function return type.

• An initializer expression does not have the same type as the object it is initializing.

• An expression that controls a conditional statement, looping construct, or switch does not have the result type that's required to control it.

• An operand supplied to an operator does not have the same type as the matching operand-parameter. For built-in operators, both operands must have the same type, and are converted to a common type that can represent both. For more information, see Standard Conversions. For user-defined operators, each operand must have the same type as the matching operand-parameter.

When one standard conversion can't complete an implicit conversion, the compiler can use a user-defined conversion, followed optionally by an additional standard conversion, to complete it.

When two or more user-defined conversions that perform the same conversion are available at a conversion site, the conversion is said to be ambiguous. Such ambiguities are an error because the compiler can't determine which one of the available conversions it should choose. However, it's not an error just to define multiple ways of performing the same conversion because the set of available conversions can be different at different locations in the source code—for example, depending on which header files are included in a source file. As long as only one conversion is available at the conversion site, there is no ambiguity. There are several ways that ambiguous conversions can arise, but the most common ones are:

• Multiple inheritance. The conversion is defined in more than one base class.

• Ambiguous function call. The conversion is defined as a conversion constructor of the target type and as a conversion function of the source type. For more information, see Conversion functions.

You can usually resolve an ambiguity just by qualifying the name of the involved type more fully or by performing an explicit cast to clarify your intent.

Both conversion constructors and conversion functions obey member-access control rules, but the accessibility of the conversions is only considered if and when an unambiguous conversion can be determined. This means that a conversion can be ambiguous even if the access level of a competing conversion would prevent it from being used. For more information about member accessibility, see Member Access Control.

The explicit keyword and problems with implicit conversion

By default when you create a user-defined conversion, the compiler can use it to perform implicit conversions. Sometimes this is what you want, but other times the simple rules that guide the compiler in making implicit conversions can lead it to accept code that you don't want it to.

One well-known example of an implicit conversion that can cause problems is the conversion to bool. There are many reasons that you might want to create a class type that can be used in a Boolean context—for example, so that it can be used to control an if statement or loop—but when the compiler performs a user-defined conversion to a built-in type, the compiler is allowed to apply an additional standard conversion afterwards. The intent of this additional standard conversion is to allow for things like promotion from short to int, but it also opens the door for less-obvious conversions—for example, from bool to int, which allows your class type to be used in integer contexts you never intended. This particular problem is known as the Safe Bool Problem. This kind of problem is where the explicit keyword can help.

The explicit keyword tells the compiler that the specified conversion can't be used to perform implicit conversions. If you wanted the syntactic convenience of implicit conversions before the explicit keyword was introduced, you had to either accept the unintended consequences that implicit conversion sometimes created or use less-convenient, named conversion functions as a workaround. Now, by using the explicit keyword, you can create convenient conversions that can only be used to perform explicit casts or direct initialization, and that won't lead to the kind of problems exemplified by the Safe Bool Problem.

The explicit keyword can be applied to conversion constructors since C++98, and to conversion functions since C++11. The following sections contain more information about how to use the explicit keyword.

Conversion constructors

Conversion constructors define conversions from user-defined or built-in types to a user-defined type. The following example demonstrates a conversion constructor that converts from the built-in type double to a user-defined type Money.

Notice that the first call to the function display_balance, which takes an argument of type Money, doesn't require a conversion because its argument is the correct type. However, on the second call to display_balance, a conversion is needed because the type of the argument, a double with a value of 49.95, is not what the function expects. The function can't use this value directly, but because there's a conversion from the type of the argument—double—to the type of the matching parameter—Money—a temporary value of type Money is constructed from the argument and used to complete the function call. In the third call to display_balance, notice that the argument is not a double, but is instead a float with a value of 9.99—and yet the function call can still be completed because the compiler can perform a standard conversion—in this case, from float to double—and then perform the user-defined conversion from double to Money to complete the necessary conversion.

Declaring conversion constructors

The following rules apply to declaring a conversion constructor:

• The target type of the conversion is the user-defined type that's being constructed.

• Conversion constructors typically take exactly one argument, which is of the source type. However, a conversion constructor can specify additional parameters if each additional parameter has a default value. The source type remains the type of the first parameter.

• Conversion constructors, like all constructors, do not specify a return type. Specifying a return type in the declaration is an error.

• Conversion constructors can be explicit.

Explicit conversion constructors

By declaring a conversion constructor to be explicit, it can only be used to perform direct initialization of an object or to perform an explicit cast. This prevents functions that accept an argument of the class type from also implicitly accepting arguments of the conversion constructor's source type, and prevents the class type from being copy-initialized from a value of the source type. The following example demonstrates how to define an explicit conversion constructor, and the effect it has on what code is well-formed.

In this example, notice that you can still use the explicit conversion constructor to perform direct initialization of payable. If instead you were to copy-initialize Money payable = 79.99;, it would be an error. The first call to display_balance is unaffected because the argument is the correct type. The second call to display_balance is an error, because the conversion constructor can't be used to perform implicit conversions. The third call to display_balance is legal because of the explicit cast to Money, but notice that the compiler still helped complete the cast by inserting an implicit cast from float to double.

Although the convenience of allowing implicit conversions can be tempting, doing so can introduce hard-to-find bugs. The rule of thumb is to make all conversion constructors explicit except when you're sure that you want a specific conversion to occur implicitly.

Conversion functions

Conversion functions define conversions from a user-defined type to other types. These functions are sometimes referred to as 'cast operators' because they, along with conversion constructors, are called when a value is cast to a different type. The following example demonstrates a conversion function that converts from the user-defined type, Money, to a built-in type, double:

Notice that the member variable amount is made private and that a public conversion function to type double is introduced just to return the value of amount. In the function display_balance, an implicit conversion occurs when the value of balance is streamed to standard output by using the stream insertion operator <<. Because no stream-insertion operator is defined for the user-defined type Money, but there is one for built-in type double, the compiler can use the conversion function from Money to double to satisfy the stream-insertion operator.

Conversion functions are inherited by derived classes. Conversion functions in a derived class only override an inherited conversion function when they convert to exactly the same type. For example, a user-defined conversion function of the derived class operator int does not override—or even influence—a user-defined conversion function of the base class operator short, even though the standard conversions define a conversion relationship between int and short.

Declaring conversion functions

The following rules apply to declaring a conversion function:

• The target type of the conversion must be declared prior to the declaration of the conversion function. Classes, structures, enumerations, and typedefs cannot be declared within the declaration of the conversion function.

• Conversion functions take no arguments. Specifying any parameters in the declaration is an error.

• Conversion functions have a return type that is specified by the name of the conversion function, which is also the name of the conversion's target type. Specifying a return type in the declaration is an error.

• Conversion functions can be virtual.

• Conversion functions can be explicit.

Explicit conversion functions

When a conversion function is declared to be explicit, it can only be used to perform an explicit cast. This prevents functions that accept an argument of the conversion function's target type from also implicitly accepting arguments of the class type, and prevents instances of the target type from being copy-initialized from a value of the class type. The following example demonstrates how to define an explicit conversion function and the effect it has on what code is well-formed.

Here the conversion function operator double has been made explicit, and an explicit cast to type double has been introduced in the function display_balance to perform the conversion. If this cast were omitted, the compiler would be unable to locate a suitable stream-insertion operator << for type Money and an error would occur.

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This reference explains the C++ programming language as implemented in the Microsoft C++ compiler. The organization is based on The Annotated C++ Reference Manual by Margaret Ellis and Bjarne Stroustrup and on the ANSI/ISO C++ International Standard (ISO/IEC FDIS 14882). Microsoft-specific implementations of C++ language features are included.

Function In Dev C++

For an overview of Modern C++ programming practices, see Welcome Back to C++.

See the following tables to quickly find a keyword or operator:

In This Section

Lexical Conventions
Fundamental lexical elements of a C++ program: tokens, comments, operators, keywords, punctuators, literals. Also, file translation, operator precedence/associativity.

Basic Concepts
Scope, linkage, program startup and termination, storage classes, and types.

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Built-in typesThe fundamental types that are built into the C++ compiler and their value ranges.

Standard Conversions
Type conversions between built-in types. Also, arithmetic conversions and conversions among pointer, reference, and pointer-to-member types.

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Declarations and definitionsDeclaring and defining variables, types and functions.

Operators, Precedence and Associativity
The operators in C++.

Expressions
Types of expressions, semantics of expressions, reference topics on operators, casting and casting operators, run-time type information.

Lambda Expressions
A programming technique that implicitly defines a function object class and constructs a function object of that class type.

Statements
Expression, null, compound, selection, iteration, jump, and declaration statements.

Classes and structs
Introduction to classes, structures, and unions. Also, member functions, special member functions, data members, bit fields, this pointer, nested classes.

Unions
User-defined types in which all members share the same memory location.

Derived Classes
Single and multiple inheritance, virtual functions, multiple base classes, abstract classes, scope rules. Also, the __super and __interface keywords.

Member-Access Control
Controlling access to class members: public, private, and protected keywords. Friend functions and classes.

Overloading
Overloaded operators, rules for operator overloading.

Exception Handling
C++ exception handling, structured exception handling (SEH), keywords used in writing exception handling statements.

Assertion and User-Supplied Messages
#error directive, the static_assert keyword, the assert macro.

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Templates
Template specifications, function templates, class templates, typename keyword, templates vs. macros, templates and smart pointers.

Event Handling
Declaring events and event handlers.

Dev c++ download 32 bit. Microsoft-Specific Modifiers
Modifiers specific to Microsoft C++. Memory addressing, calling conventions, naked functions, extended storage-class attributes (__declspec), __w64.

Inline Assembler
Using assembly language and C++ in __asm blocks.

Compiler COM Support
A reference to Microsoft-specific classes and global functions used to support COM types.

Microsoft Extensions
Microsoft extensions to C++.

Nonstandard Behavior
Information about nonstandard behavior of the Microsoft C++ compiler.

Welcome Back to C++
An overview of modern C++ programming practices for writing safe, correct and efficient programs.

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Related Sections

Component Extensions for Runtime Platforms
Reference material on using the Microsoft C++ compiler to target .NET.

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C/C++ Building Reference
Compiler options, linker options, and other build tools.

C/C++ Preprocessor Reference
Reference material on pragmas, preprocessor directives, predefined macros, and the preprocessor.

Visual C++ Libraries
A list of links to the reference start pages for the various Microsoft C++ libraries.

See also